Eustress or Distress? The Interactive Effects of Time Pressure and Appraisal Framing on Reading Comprehension Among L1 and L2 Readers

Abstract

The present study examined how different types of stress influenced students’ reading comprehension by manipulating time pressure and appraisal framing. Time pressure was manipulated by varying the amount of time available to complete reading tasks, while appraisal framing altered how participants interpreted stress (reappraisal, neutral, evaluation threat). The study also compared native (L1) and non-native (L2) English readers. Participants completed reading comprehension tasks based on the Nelson-Denny Reading Test while their eye movements were recorded to assess reading efficiency. Results showed that native participants demonstrated higher reading accuracy than non-native participants, and time pressure significantly reduced accuracy. Importantly, an interaction between time pressure and appraisal framing revealed that time pressure impaired accuracy in the neutral and threat conditions but not in the reappraisal condition, suggesting a buffering effect of reappraisal. For reading efficiency, non-native participants exhibited longer fixation durations, gaze durations, and total reading times than native participants. Time pressure reduced total reading time for both groups, with a stronger effect for non-native participants. Notably, appraisal framing influenced processing efficiency, such that reappraisal reduced processing time and the difference between native and non-native participants. Overall, these findings suggest that stress can be either harmful or beneficial, depending on how it is interpreted, and highlight the potential of reappraisal to mitigate the negative effects of stress on reading performance.